The Central Nervous System: Structure and Functions

The Central Nervous System: Structure and Functions Hayley Sterling The structure of: The Central Nervous System The brain and spinal cord make up the Central Nervous System (CNS). The term central is used because it assimilates information from the whole body and coordinates activities across the entire organism. The brain is enclosed in and protected by the skull (cranial cavity). From the back of the brain, the spinal cord flows down, passing through the spinal canal and stopping down in the lumbar region. The brain and the spinal cord are protected by a triple layered membrane, this is known as the meninges. Sensory, connector and motor neurones. Like all living organisms, humans can respond to their environment. There are two control systems that work together to accomplish this the nervous system and the hormonal (endocrine) system. Breathing, production of digestive enzymes, memory and intelligence are examples of things controlled by the human nervous system. The nervous system is composed of nerve cells, known as neurones.       The details of each of the neurones can be seen in the images above. Each neurone has similarities and differences when it comes to length of fibres, location and their function. The Sensory neurone has long dendrites and short axons, is located within the cell body (dendrites outside of the cell body) and the cell body is located within the dorsal root ganglion. The function of the sensory neurone is to conduct impulse to the spinal cord. The interneuron has short dendrites and has either a short or long axon. It is located entirely within the spinal cord (central nervous system). Its function is to interconnect the sensory neuron with the motor neuron. The motor neuron has short dendrites and long axons. The dendrites and cell body are located within the spinal cord, whereas the axon is outside of the spinal cord. Its function is to conduct an impulse to the effector (gland or muscle). Axons and Dendrites the opposites of each other. Axons take information away from the cell body and Dendrites bring information to it. Axons have a smooth surface, Dendrites have a rough one. Only usually 1 Axon per cell, multiple Dendrites per cell. Axons have no Ribosomes, and Dendrites do. Axons can have Myelin insulation, Dendrites do not. Axons branch far away from the cell body, Dendrite branch closely to the cell. How nerve impulses are transmitted The ultimate function of nerve cells (neurones) is to transmit signal from sense organs, such as the eyes and skin, to the central nervous system then from the CNS to the effector organs. Neurones are made up from a cell body, from here small projections protrude, these are called dendrites. There is one lengthened dendrite called an axon, the axon is usually protected in an electro-insulating compound known as myelin this will speed up the signals. The end of the axon, spreads into may branches, this means that the signals can be delivered to multiple target cells at once. This can be seen in the image below: An electrical current carries the neuron, which then transmits the signal. The role of chemical transmitters in enabling impulses to cross synapses Chemical Synapse. A fluid filled space known as a synaptic cleft separates two membranes. These are referred to as pre and post synaptic membranes. The above image shows the pre and post synaptic membranes. An electrical impulse comes from the axon of the pre-synaptic membrane. This in turn causes the nerve-ending of the neuron to release chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. The chemicals proceed to diffuse in the synaptic cleft, before binding with receptor molecules on the next neuron.   They receptor molecules of this neuron will only bind with the specific chemicals given from the first neuron. This will then stimulate the next neuron to replicate the process. Voluntary and reflex actions Voluntary actions require a message from the brain, before being able to carry it out. For this reason, they are slower than a reflex action. Most actions carried out by our body are voluntary actions, for example choosing to walk in a certain direct to avoid danger or obstacles. Reflex actions are in-voluntary and do not require thought in order to be processed. Reflex actions occur in response to a stimulus, for example when touching a hot surface, we automatically react by removing contact from the surface, before our brain actually recognises that the surface is hot. The role of the autonomic nervous system The inside of the body is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Information is transported about the inside of the body to the central nervous system. It also controls internal organs such as our heart, stomach and liver etc. Homeostasis is where the bodys internal environment is maintained safely. This is done through balancing levels of temperature, oxygen in the blood, blood sugar and salt concentration. The autonomic nervous system is instrumental in ensuring homeostasis occurs in the body. Another vital role of the autonomic nervous system is displaying physical signs of our emotional expressions. An example of this is when were emotionally excited our heart rate may increase, blood pressure may rise, and our mouth may become dry. The autonomic nervous system has 2 divisions. The emergency system formally known as the Sympathetic division and the housekeeping division known as the parasympathetic division. The parasympathetic divisions action is usually always the opposite of the Sympathetic division. The sympathetic division prepares our body to give out energy in order to protect itself from the effects of injury. The parasympathetic division will complete actions such as reducing heart rate and reduce blood pressure where necessary. Effects on transmission of nerve impulses from caffeine Caffeine is known as a stimulant, caffeine can be found in coffee, cola, energy drinks, cannabis and amphetamines. Caffeine/stimulants increases the rate of transmissions of signals from one cell to another. This will increase our alertness, as well as our breathing and heart rate. Lon term affects include us producing highs but these can also be followed by extreme lows. Extreme lows can progress further and lead to depression. References Aviva.co.uk. (2017). Medical Encyclopedia Function: Voluntary and Involuntary Responses Aviva. [online] Available at: http://www.aviva.co.uk/health-insurance/home-of-health/medical-centre/medical-encyclopedia/entry/function-voluntary-and-involuntary-responses/ [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Bbc.co.uk. (2017). BBC GCSE Bitesize: How synapses work Higher. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_pre_2011/brain_mind/informationrev2.shtml [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Bbc.co.uk. (2017). BBC GCSE Bitesize: Stimulants, sedatives and painkillers. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/edexcel_pre_2011/health/drugsandhealthrev4.shtml [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Biologymad.com. (2017). Nervous System Intro. [online] Available at: http://www.biologymad.com/nervoussystem/nervoussystemintro.htm [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Boundless. (2017). Synaptic Transmission. [online] Available at: https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/the-nervous-system-35/how-neurons-communicate-200/synaptic-transmission-763-11996/ [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Indiana.edu. (2017). AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. [online] Available at: http://www.indiana.edu/~p1013447/dictionary/ans.htm [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Newman, T. (2017). Central Nervous System: Structure, Functions and Diseases. [online] Medical News Today. Available at: http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/307076.php [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Science.education.nih.gov. (2017). The Brain-Lesson 3-Drugs Change the Way Neurons Communicate (Page 1 of 2). [online] Available at: https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih2/addiction/guide/lesson3-1.html [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Steane, R. (2017). Voluntary and reflex actions. [online] Biotopics.co.uk. Available at: http://www.biotopics.co.uk/newgcse/voluntaryReflex.html [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. The Student Room. (2017). Revision:Nerve impulse transmission The Student Room. [online] Available at: https://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/wiki/Revision:Nerve_impulse_transmission [Accessed 3 Feb. 2017]. Marketing Strategies of Asda: An Analysis Marketing Strategies of Asda: An Analysis Introduction: Marketing Strategy defines objectives and describes the methods youre going to make happy customers in your target markets. It does not have to be written down but it is easier to communicate to outsiders if there is a plan, strategy. What is a Marketing strategy? The broad approach the company intends to implement in the long term to achieve its objectives. A medium to long term plan for achieving a firms marketing objectives. The means or game plan by which marketing objectives will be achieved. Concerns markets, positioning, direction of development and competitive advantage. A plan for future marketing activity. What should have to be in marketing strategies? Marketing strategy should be: Be part of the all strategies of the company. Be a clear understanding of the markets to implies the strategy. Market should be analysis first. Be based on the companys strengths. Checked the opportunities by strengths. Analysis the companys weaknesses. Act in response to threats. Be incorporated and logical. Be carefully checked out the all strategies. MOST: Components of the Strategies Mission Objectives Strategy (overall plans) Tactics short term responses to opportunities or threats Effectives on strategies: Business objectives The firms resources The firms strengths Market conditions Opportunities in the market Competition and market structure Stages in the development of marketing strategy: Objectives should have to be clear. Marketing audit should be done before implemented. Arrange the SWOT analysis Define marketing objectives Develop marketing strategies Implement marketing plans Review and realize the outcomes Prepare the next plan RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Objectives of research: I will have set objectives for my research, to outline what it is that I want to gain from my research. These objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. Marketing is a key area of the business to help it to develop and grow (Marketing is therefore a tool for any business). The purpose and objectives of my research is to find out why companies spend a significant on their marketing strategy and what strategies they adopt to compete with their competitors. There are two types of research objectives: General Objectives: A General Objective is a brief outline of what the researcher expects to achieve by carrying out his research For example: How the GREEN is helping to the ASDA business? How and Why ASDA spending more on their marketing? why the grocery retailers are giving the preference to get their CASH CARRY from ASDA stores? Why the ASDA has only BIG STORES? How the GEORGE is getting more clothing customers on their prices? How ASDA getting more customers from GEORGE? How ASDA marketing for GEORGE? Specific Objectives: A specific objective is where it is possible to breakdown the general objectives into smaller, logically connected parts. How ASDA can seek more business from its existing customers by aiming to grow its market share with the products that it already in its portfolio. How ASDA can seek expansion by taking its traditional product range into new markets. How ASDA can persuade existing customers that they should buy different products or services a sort of product line extension. How ASDA marketing researchers could explore the needs of customers for the products that are contemplated for the extended collection. Opportunity Meeting Objective: How can ASDA improve their existing and more offers to customers by their (the product/service, the delivery, the guarantees, the service support etc)? How can ASDA segment the market so that they can better satisfy their all customers needs? What are the best routes to ASDA marketing because they already got and knows the marketing routes? How can ASDA convince people to buy their products when they are being tempted in other directions? How can ASDA increase their sales by marketing in other territories? What changes for the packaging of the product ASDA will do to sell them? LITERATURE REVIEW The marketing mix: Marketing strategies generally fall in to following four controllable categories. Product Price Place Promotion The four Ps are the parameters that the marketing manager can control, subject to the internal and external constraints of marketing environment. The goal is to make decisions that centre the four Ps on the customers in the target market in order to create perceived value and generate a positive response. Product Contribution: The term product refers to tangible, physical products as well as services. Here are some examples of the product and how to contribute them in the marketing strategy. Brand name Functionality Styling Quality Safety Packaging Repairs and support Warranty Accessories and services Price Contribution: Some specification in price contributions is Pricing strategy (skim, penetration, etc.) Suggested retail price Volume discounts and wholesale pricing Cash and early payment discount Seasonal pricing Bundling Price flexibility Price discrimination Place Contribution: Place is about getting the products to the customers e.g. Distribution channels Market coverage (inclusive, selective, or exclusive distribution) Inventory management Warehousing Place centres Order processing Transportation Reverse logistics Promotion contribution: In the marketing mix, promotion represents the various aspects of marketing strategies that is the strategy of information about the product with the goal of generating a positive customer response. Promotional strategy (push, pull. etc) Advertising Personal selling sales force Sales promotions Public relations publicity Marketing strategies budget Every marketing strategy whenever it going to makes it will be implemented by the marketing mix and that strategy will be analysed first to fit in the marketing mix. Product Life Cycle Introduction Stage At the Introduction (or development) step market size and growth is slight. It is possible that extensive research and improvement costs have been incurred to get the product to this stage. In addition, marketing costs may be more in order to test the market, experience launch promotion and set up distribution channels. It is quite unexpected that companies will make profits on products at the Introduction Stage. Because that time company will just invest on their product that should not be the time for enough profit. Growth Stage The Growth Stage is characterized by rapid growth in sales and profits. Profits arise due to an increase in output (economies of scale) and possibly better prices. At this stage, it is cheaper for businesses to invest in increasing their market share as well as enjoying the overall growth of the market Maturity Stage The Maturity Stage is, perhaps, the most common and peek of product stage for all markets. It is in this stage that competition is most intense as companies fight to maintain their market share. Here, both marketing and finance become key activities. Marketing spend has to be monitored carefully, since any significant moves are likely to be copied by competitors. The Maturity Stage is the time when most profit is earned by the market as a whole. Any expenditure is to be restricted. Decline Stage In the Decline Stage, the market is shrinking, reducing the overall amount of profit that can be shared amongst the lasting competitors. At this stage, great care has to be taken to manage the product carefully. It may be possible to take out some production cost, to transfer production to a cheaper facility, sell the product into other, cheaper markets. SWOT ANALYSIS before Marketing: SWOT analysis is an important tool for auditing the overall marketing strategic position of a business and its environment. Because businesses dont want to waste their money and resources on the fake planning for their business. SWOT is the internal and external view of the company what theyve got, what they have to do to survive in the markets, what they can do, what they are loosing. Once key strategic issues have been identified, they feed into business objectives, particularly marketing objectives. SWOT analysis is very popular tool in business for marketing strategies because it is quick and easy way to analyze the company. Strengths and weaknesses are internal factors. For example, strength could be your specialist in marketing capability. A weakness could be the required for the new marker for new products which helps you to get the big market share. Opportunities and threats are external factors. For example, an opportunity could be a developing distribution channel, marketing for the products such as the Internet, or changing consumer lifestyles that Will be easy to by the things online and that would be the extra sale of the company and potentially increase demand for a companys products. A threat could be a new competitor in an important existing market or a technological change that makes existing products potentially obsolete ANSOFF MATRIX: The output from the ANSOFF product/market MATRIX is a series of suggested growth marketing strategies that set the direction for the business strategy. From the ANSOFF matrix I am getting two growth strategies which will help us for our marketing analysis to do the marketing because we are not going to launch new products this analysis is the clear eye for the company where they have to go and what they have to do (tutor2u,2010 online) Market Penetration Market penetration is the name given to a growth strategy where the business focuses and going to more marketing on selling existing products into existing markets. Market penetration seeks to achieve four main objectives: Maintain or increase the market share of current products this can be achieved by a combination of competitive pricing strategies, advertising, sales promotion and perhaps more resources dedicated to personal selling Secure dominance of growth markets Restructure a mature market by driving out competitors; this would require a much more aggressive promotional campaign, supported by a pricing strategy designed to make the market unattractive for competitors Increase usage by existing customers for example by introducing loyalty schemes A market penetration marketing strategy is very much about business as usual. The business is focusing on markets and products it knows well. It is likely to have good information on competitors and on customer needs. It is unlikely, therefore, that this strategy will require much investment in new market research. Market development Market development is the name given to a growth strategy where the business seeks to sell its existing products into new markets. There are many possible ways of approaching this strategy, including: New geographical markets; for example exporting the product to a new country New product dimensions or packaging New distribution channels Different pricing policies to attract different customers or create new market segments These are the tools to analysis the strategies before to get start the marketing, with out the strategies analysis it is like we are traveling on the road with closed eyes. After this checklist, you will find out the path which path you can adopt and where from you can get start. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Secondary data: The possibility of reanalyzing data that have already been collected for some other purpose it is called secondary data. Secondary data include both raw data and published summaries. Secondary data will probably provide the main source to answer your research question and to address your objectives. This data should be already analysis and recommended for the publish. So the secondary data will help to make your primary data to make your research meaningful and achieved. Primary data: Primary data is the data which is collected by the researcher directly from his own observations and experiences. For example, if the researcher conducts a survey for the collected of data then it is known as primary data. Primary data are those data which are collected for the first time, taking a sample, representing a population. It is not a published data, it is problem specific data collected by the researcher, first time. Methods or Ways of primary data collection: There are some methods to collect the primary data which is most important data in the research because the researcher only the one who is going to know what he/she will found against of their objectives. The primary data is just like new innovation or uncompelled information which should be helpful to meet your objectives. Now we are going to discuss the methods. Questionnaires Interviews Focus group interviews Observation Case-studies Diaries Critical incidents Portfolios. Questionnaires: Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced. In the questionnaires method there are some more types of the questionnaire that would be helpful to understand the researchers objectives. Interviews: Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for peoples attitudes, preferences or behavior. Interviews can be undertaken on a personal one-to-one basis or in a group. They can be conducted at work, at home, in the street or in a shopping centre, or some other agreed location. (Sounders, 2010) This is the 2nd method to get the information and data from your interviewee and researcher can find the perfect and exact information about their research. There are different types of the interviews which can be conduct. Semi- Structured Interviews: In this type of the interview the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covers, although these may vary from interview to interview. The order of questions may also be varied depending on the flow of the conversation. On the other hand, additional questions may be required to explore your research question and objectives given the nature of events within particular organizations. The nature of the questions and the ensuring discussion mean that data will be recorded by note taking.(Sounders,2010) Unstructured or In-Depth Interviews: We can use these to explore in depth general areas in which I am interested. There is no predetermined list of questions to work through in this situation, although you need to have a clear idea about the aspect or aspect that you want to explore. The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events, behavior and beliefs in relation to the topic area. (Sounders, 2010) Focus group interviews: A focus group is an interview conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured and natural manner with a small group of respondents. The moderator leads the discussion. The main purpose of focus groups is to gain insights by listening to a group of people from the appropriate target market talk about specific issues of interest. Observation: Observation is a somewhat neglected aspect of research. Observation is adding considerably to the richness of your research data. it can even be fun. If my research questions and objectives are concerned with what people do, an obvious way in which to discover this is to watch them do it. Types of Observation: Participant observation Structured observation Participant observation is qualitative and derives from the work of social anthropology early in the twentieth century. Its emphasis is on discovering the meaning that people attach to their action. This is where the researcher attempts to participate in the lives and activities of subjects and thus becomes a member of their group, organization or community. Structures observation is quantitative and is more concerned with the frequency of those actions. DATA ANALYSIS Analyzing qualitative data: Qualitative e data consist of words and observation, not numbers. As with all data, analysis and interpretation are required to bring order and understanding. This requires creativity, discipline and a systematic approach. These are no single or best way. The process will depend on: The questions you want to answer, The need of those who will use the information , and Your resources Narrative data: Test or narrative data come in many forms and from a variety of sources. You might have brief responses to open-ended question on a survey, the transcript from an interview, or the text of a published report. Your data may come from many people, a few individuals, or a single case. Any of the following may produce narrative data that require analysis Open-ended questions and written comments on questionnaires may generate single word Individual interviews can produce data in the form of notes. Discussion group or focus group interview often involve full transcripts and notes from observer. Observation might be recorded in your field notes as a result of watching and listening. Documents, reports and news articles or any published written material may serve as evaluation data. The analysis process: When we got the data what do i do? The steps are describing which will explain the narrative data analysis and interpretation. Get to know the data: The qualitative analysis, this mean i have to read and re-read the test. If i got any idea i have to write it down may be useful later. When we got the data it dose not mean those are the quality data. Sometimes information provides does not add meaning or value and may be collected in a biased way. Focus the analysis: Review the purpose of the evaluation and what you want to find out. Identify a few key questions that you want your analysis to answers. Write these down and these will help me decide how to begin. These questions may change as you work with the data, will help me get started Categorize information: Some people refer to categorizing information as coding the data or indexing the data. However, categorizing does not involve assigning numerical codes as you do in quantitative analysis where you label exclusive variables with preset codes or values. Identify patterns and connections within and between categories: As you organize the data into categorize either by any way we will begin to see patterns and connections both within and between the categories. Assessing the relative importance of different themes or highlighting subtle variations may be important to your analysis. Interpretation bringing it all together: Interpreting the data attaching meaning and significance to the analysis. A good place to start is to develop a list of key points or important finding you discovered as a result of categorizing and sorting your data. For the researcher this is the main caring point where they have to analyse the data what they collected because they are going to publish a report or making the dissertation they need the solid and realistic data from their primary and secondary data collection. Collecting the data and analyse for the right and authentic data. They have to go through the entire analysis step for their qualitative data. Analysing quantitative data Statistic analysis could be involved to analyse the quantitative data. There are some common mathematical techniques that can be make the evaluation data to more understandable, this called the descriptive statistic because they help to describe the raw data. And these methods includes. Numerical counting. Percentages. Measures of central tendency. Measures of variability. There are some steps which are using in analysis of quantitative data. State your research questions in a clear, precise way.   If your main question(s) imply other questions, state these as sub-questions. Determine what kinds of comparisons you need to make in order to answer your questions. What variables do you need to measure? Are you interested in differences between groups?   Correlations between variables?    This step will often help to clarify the research question! Decide how to assess each variable, and verify what kind of variable it is. This will help you decide what kind of comparisons you will want to make. Set up blank tables. Devise a research method and gather your data. Summarize your data in such a way that you can fill in the blanks in your tables. (Analyze your data.) Interpret your data:   What is the answer to each of your questions?   What kind of argument will you make? Make your argument. In my research there is not too much data which I have to analyze to quantitatively, because I am writing the report about the marketing strategies, I am not doing the financial analysis or making the report of the ASDA finance report. Where ever I need it I will be analyze it then I will use that. Research presentation Presenting the research: The last step in market research is the presentation of a formal plan. At this stage, the marketing researcher should summarize the plan in a written proposal to management. A written proposal is especially important when the research project will be large and complex or when an outside concerned concern it out. The proposal should cover the company problems addressed and the research objectives, the information to be obtained, the sources of secondary information or methods for collecting primary data, and the ways the results will help for company decision making for the implementation. A written research plan or proposal makes sure that the marketing manager and researchers have consider all the important aspect of the research and that they agree on why and how the research will be done. Recommendation: The best way to find out the ways or methods to collect the perfection in primary data. Because I am searching some thing better, perfect and solid for my research topic and the primary data is first time collected from the researcher. And I have to find out the best tools for the marketing which is affected for the company for best marketing. If we follow the all primary data collection method we can get the knowledgeable and soled data for our research. I describe the objectives of the ASDA stores which I have to search out will be credible for my research. And the analysis of the data is very important because we can get the data from every where and any kind of the data. But to get the realized and perfect we have to analysis first and apply all the methods. Conclusion: For my research I will be looking into the strategy that ASDA, one of Britains leading supermarkets has adopted. Writing clear objectives is the most important step in designing qualitative marketing research. I am very intrigued as to how customers are being drawn in to the Asda brand and why it has been known for some of the most memorable advertising campaigns. After carrying out this research I will have an extensive knowledge about marketing strategies, and how they work. I will be gathering together data (which need to be collected) and then I will analyze it. This will allow me to implement the data and answer my objectives.